The Phenomenon of Plagiarism along with Other Related Concepts in Islamic Architecture and Heritage Structures "A Comparative and Applied Study on Selected Models"

Document Type : Original Article

Author

Department of Islamic Archaeology- Faculty of Archaeology - Fayoum University - Egypt

Abstract

The theme of this research is to highlight some of attempts have been made for achieving the concept, manifestations and evidences of the phenomenon of plagiarism, exaction and related meanings, which emerged and prevailed in architectural and archaeological structures. In addition, the concept, manifestations and evidences of conversion, reuse and related meanings, which are reflected in some heritage structures. Thus, these structures will appear in another form and reflect a methodology other than the original idea, function and purpose. The illegal infringement of ideas or the so-called plagiarism is a manifestation of change in the parameters of truth, actual reality and original purpose. As it is an aspect of the violation of the rights of others, also it is an indication of a claim or an illegitimate possession without the right of the owner and the original holder of the right. The manifestations of the phenomenon of plagiarism and its equivalent in meaning appeared in heritage architecture through the phenomenon of exaction and re-attribution to someone other than the original founder. It is worth mentioning that there are two complementary aspects to the current study; the first common aspect is concept of the phenomenon of plagiarism combined with exaction, whilst the second common aspect was the concept of conversion along with reuse. This is why the models are chosen and applied to this study. The research methodology will be addressed by comparing those concepts to clarify differences and differentiation through an applied study on selected models of architectural and archaeological structures.

Keywords

References

7. References
[1]       Abd al-Wahhab, H., (1957). Takhtit Alqahereh Watanzimiha mundh Nasha'atiha, Darannshr Press, Cairo.
[2]       Abdul-Sattar, M., (1988). Al Madinah Al'Islamiah, Al-Resalah Press, Kuwait.
[3]       Morris, J., (1972). History of Urban Form Prehistory to the Renaissance, London.
[4]       Frank, K., (1984). Die Stadt im Altertum, Verlag C.H. Beck Press, München.
[5]       Claude, Ch., (1990). Les Villes du Monde Arabes, Masson Press, Paris.
[6]       Van Assche, K., and Beunen, R., et.al., (2013). Co-evolutions of planning and design: Risks and benefits of design perspectives in planning systems, Journal of Planning Theory, Vol.12, Issue 2, pp.177-198.
[7]       Jokilehto, J., (1998). The Context of the Venice Charter (1964), Journal of Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, Vol. 2, pp. 229-233.
[8]       The Venice Charter, (1964). International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites, (Article 5) on:  www.icomos.org (Access date: 16/1/2018).
[9]       Resolutions of the Symposium on the introduction of contemporary architecture into ancient groups of buildings, the 3rd ICOMOS General Assembly, Budapest, 30th June 1972, www.international.icomos.org (Access date: 16/1/2018).
[10]    Mohammed, A.M., (2006). Altʽamul Maʽa ʽanaser Alʽemarah Alddakhiliah fi Mashariʽ Eʽadet Tawzif Almabani dhat Alqimah, M.A. Thesis, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt.
[11]    Mahmmoud, G.A., (2013). Taqyim Albadaeil Ertibatan Belmuetayat fi eʽadat Estekhdam Almabany al'athariah, derasah eʽilmiah taqyimmiah fi altarmim walsianah tatbiqaan ʽale ahd almabany al'athariah bimadinat Alqaherah, M.A. Thesis, Department of Restoration, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University, Egypt.
[12]    Ahmed, Z.A., (2008). Almaʽyir Alfaniyah leʽadet Tawzif Almabany Kamatahif Tatabiqan biestikhdam Alhasib Alaly, Unpublished PhD Thesis, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt.
[13]    Leonardo, M.V., (2004). Lynch, Kevin, In: Caves, W., (Ed.): Encyclopedia of the City, Routledge Press, London, pp.297-298. 
[14]    https://www.brentcbrolin.com/ (Access date : 15/2/2018)
[15]    Harcourt, H. M., (Ed.) (2018): The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition copyright ©2018 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, USA https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=define (Access date: 10/1/2018).
[16]    Al-Jurjani, M.A., (1995). Taʽrīfāt, Dar El Kotob for Printing & Publishing, Cairo.
[17]    Academy of the Arabic Language, (2010). Al Mu'jam al-Waseet, Bab al-Ta'a and Bab al-Ghayn, Dar El Daawa for Printing & Publishing, Cairo.
[18]    Osman, D., (2009). A methodology for developing urban pathways of Historical districts in Egypt, PhD Thesis, Department of Architecture, Faculty of fine arts, Helwan University, Egypt. 
[19]    Serageldin, I., (2002). Very Special Places: The Architecture and Economics of. Intervening in Historic Cities, World Bank Press, Washington DC, USA.
[20]    Abdeen, N., (2009).  Reusing Historical buildings as a reference to Conservation, M.A. Thesis, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt.
[21]    Henehan, D., Woodson, D., & Culbert, S., (2004). Building Change-of-Use. Renovation, Adapting, and Altering Commercial, Institutional, and Industrial Properties, McGraw-Hill Press, New York.
[22]    Yung, E., & Edwin, H.W., (20120. Implementation challenges to the adaptive reuse of Heritage buildings: Towards the goals of sustainable, low carbon cities, Journal of Habitat International, Vol. 36, Issue 3, pp. 352-361.
[23]    Bernand, F., (1982). Conservation of Historic buildings, Butterworth and Co.LTD Press, England.
[24]    Langston, C., Wong, F., et.al. (2007). Strategic assessment of building adaptive reuse opportunities in Hong Kong, Journal of Building and Environment, Vol.43, Issue 10, pp.1709-1718.
[25]    von Grunebaum, G., (1944). The Concept of Plagiarism in Arabic Theory, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol.3, Issue 4, pp.234-253.
[26]    Lynch, J., (2002). The Perfectly Acceptable Practice of Literary Theft: Plagiarism, Copyright, and the Eighteenth Century, in Colonial Williamsburg, Journal of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Vol.24, Issue 4, pp. 51-54.
[27]    Broome, M., (2004). Self-plagiarism: Oxymoron, fair use, or scientific misconduct? Nursing Outlook, Vol. 52, Issue 6, pp.273-274.
[28]    Sowden, C., (2005). Plagiarism and the Culture of Multilingual Students in Higher Education Abroad, ELT Journal, Vol. 59, Issue 2, pp. 226-233.
[29]    Martin, E., (2011). Culture and Unethical Conduct: Understanding the Impact of Individualism and Collectivism on Actual Plagiarism, Journal of Management Learning, Vol.43, Issue 3, pp. 261-273.
[30]    O’Connor, Z., (2015). Extreme plagiarism: The rise of the e-Idiot?' International Journal of Learning in Higher Education, Vol. 20, Issue1, pp.1-11.
[31]    Dov Goitein, S., (1950). The Historical Background of the Erection of the Dome of the Rock, Journal of the American Oriental Society/JAOS, Vol. 70, Issue. 2, pp. 104-108.
[32]    Grabar, O., (1959). The Umayyad Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, Journal of Ars Orientalis, Vol. 3, pp.33-62.
[33]    Grabar, O., (1996). The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
[34]    Grabar, O., (2006). The Dome of the Rock, Harvard University Press, London.
[35]    Necipoğlu, G., (2008). The Dome of the Rock as Palimpsest: ʿAbd al-Malik’s Grand Narrative and Sultan Süleyman’s Glosses, Journal of Muqarnas Vol. 25, pp. 17–105.
[36]    Mintz, J., (2010). The Umayyad Dome of the Rock: A Historical Narrative through Architecture, California State University, USA.
[37]    Clark, G., (2012). The Dome of the Rock: The Historical, Political and Religious Motivations behind its Construction, M.A Thesis, Department of Art History University of Louisville, Kentucky, USA.
[38]    Ana Botchkareva, J., & Morgan, W., (2012). The Dome of the Rock, Publications of Department of Islamic Art, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
[39]    Schwartz, Y., (2012). Abd al Malik ibn Marwan, Publications of International Department of Medieval Art and the Cloisters, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
[40]    Halsall, P., (Ed.). (2011). Jerusalem and its Holy Sites, in: Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354, Center for Medieval Studies, Fordham University, New York.
[41]    Abd al-Wahhab, H., (1941). Asr al-Mamalik al-Bahriyya III, Majallat al-ʽImara, Vol.37/38, pp.291-300.
[42]    Vermeulen, U., (1970). Some Remarks on a Rescript of an-Nasir Muhammad b. Qala'un on the Abolition of Taxes and the Nusayris (Mamlaka of Tripoli, 717/1317), Periodical of Orientalia Lovaniensia, Vol. 1, pp. 195-201.
[43]    Donald, P.L., (1970). An Introduction to Mamluk Historiography: An Analysis of Arabic Annalistic and Biographical Sources for the Reign of an-Malik al-Nasir Muhammad ibn Qala'un, Vol. 2, Freiburger Islamstudien, Wiesbaden. 
[44]    Meinecke, M., (1971). Das Mausoleum des Qala'un in Kairo: Untersuchungen zur Genese der mamlukischen Arkitektur Dekoration, MDAIK, Vol. 27, pp. 47-80.
[45]    Meinecke, M., (1971). Mamlukische Marmordekorationen in der Osmanischen Türkei, MDAIK, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 207-220.
[46]    Viktoria, M.B., (1977). Quellen zur Topographie und Baugeschichte in Kairo unter Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad b. Qala'un, Deutscher Orientalistentag, Vol.19, the Supplement III, No.1, Franz Steiner, Wiesbaden.
[47]    Creswell, K., (1978). Muslim Architecture of Egypt, Hacker Art Books, New York. 
[48]    Meinecke, M., (1988). Rückschlüsse auf die Form der seldschukischen Madrasa in Iran, Damaszener Mitteilungen, Vol.3, pp.185-202.
[49]    Meinecke, M., (1992). Die Mamlukische Architektur in Ägypten und Syrien (648/1250 bis 923/1517), 2 Vols., Abhandlungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Kairo, Islamische Reihe, Verlag J. J. Augustin Publisher, Glückstadt.
[50]    Speiser, Ph., (1994). Restaurierungsarbeiten an der al-Nasriyya Madrasa in Kairo, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft Suppl. 10, pp. 527-540, Pls.1–4, Figs. 1-2.
[51]    Rogers, M., (1996). Evidence for Mamluk-Mongol Relations 1260-1360, Colloque International sur l'histoire du Caire, 385-403, Ministry of Culture of the Arab Republic of Egypt, Cairo.
[52]    Flood, F.B., (1997). Umayyad Survivals and Mamluk Revivals: Qalawunid Architecture and the Great Mosque of Damascus, Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Culture of the Islamic World, Edited by: Necipoglu, G., Vol. 14, E.J. Brill, Leiden, pp.57-79.
[53]    Mayer, W., Nogara, G., and Speiser, Ph., (2001). Archäologische Untersuchungen und Restaurierungsarbeiten an der Madrasa des Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad, Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo/MDAIK, Vol.57, pp. 219-238, Pls. 32-37.
[54]    Speiser, Ph., (2008). The Sultan al-Nāṣir Muḥammad Madrasah in Cairo: Restoration and Archaeological Investigation, Mamluk Studies Review, Vol. 12, Issue 2, the Middle East Documentation Center, the University of Chicago Press, pp.197-221.
[55]    Levanoni, A., (1995). A Turning Point in Mamluk History: The Third Reign of Al-Nāṣir Muḥammad ibn Qalāwūn (1310-1341), Brill Publishers, Leiden.
[56]    Ben-Bassat, Y., (Ed.). (2017). Developing Perspectives in Mamluk History: Essays in Honor of Amalia Levanoni, Brill Publishers, Leiden.
[57]    Al Asfour, M.S., (2018). The Mongol Mamluk Sultan Al Adel Kitbugha (694-702 Hij, 1294-1302 AD), World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization, Vol.8, Issue 1, pp.1-15.
[58]    Abd al-Wahhab, H., (Without date). Bayin Al Athar Al-Islamiyyah, Cairo, Egypt.
[59]    Mohamed, M.S., (1976). Masajid Misr Wawliawuha Alsalhwn, Vol.3, Al Ahram Presses, Cairo, Egypt.
[60]    Ashmolean Museum, Department of Eastern Art, the Creswell Archive, Oxford, on: http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/ (Access date: 14/11/2017).
[61]    Watson, C., and Kay, H., (1886). The Mosque of Sultan Nasir Muhammad Ebn Kalaoun, in the Citadel of Cairo, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, Vol. 18, pp.477-482.
[62]    Doris, B.A., (1985). Change in Function and Form of Mamluk Religious Institutions, Annales Islamologiques, Vol. 21, pp.73-93.
[63]    Doris, B.A., (1989). Islamic Architecture in Cairo, E.J. Brill, Leiden.
[64]    Nasser, R. O, (1995). The Citadel of Cairo: A new interpretation of royal Mamluk architecture, E.J. Brill, Leiden.
[65]    Yeomans, R., (2006). The Art and Architecture of Islamic Cairo, 1st Edition, Garnet Publishing Ltd., United Kingdom.
[66]    Doris, B.A., (2007). Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of the Architecture and Its Culture, I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, London & New York.
[67]    Al-Maqrizi, Taqi al-Din Abu al-ʽAbbas, (1998). Al Mawaʽiz wa al-'i'tibar bi dhikr Al-khitat wa Al-'athar, Vol.4, Dar al kotob al ilmiyah Press, Beirut, Lebanon.
[68]    Zaki, A., (1987). Mawsuʽat Madinat Al-Qahira fi alf ʽAmm, A Concise Encyclopaedia of the city of Cairo, the Anglo Egyptian Bookshop, Cairo, Egypt.  
[69]    Little, D.B., (1991). The nature of khanqahs, ribats, and zawiyas under the Mamluks, In: Islamic Studies presented to Charles P. Adams, Leiden, pp.91-105.
[70]    Doris, B.A., (2014). Between Quarry and Magic: The Selective Approach to Spolia in the Islamic Monuments of Egypt, In: Payne, A., (Ed.). Dalmatia and the Mediterranean Portable Archaeology and the Poetics of Influence, Brill, Leiden, pp.402-425.
[71]    Esposito, J. L., (Ed.). (2003). Khanaqah, In: The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
[72]    Esposito, J.L., (2017) Khanaqah, In: The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online, http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1270 (access date: 11/4/2017).
[73]    Swelim, T., (1986). The Complex of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh at Bab Zuwayla, M.A. Thesis, American University in Cairo, Egypt.
[74]    Noiser, H., (1996). Alʽemarah al'islamiah fi Misr, ʽasr Al-Ayyūbīyūn wal-Mamālīk, Zahraa El-Shark Press, Cairo, Egypt.
[75]    Williams, C., (2002). Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide, American University in Cairo Press, Egypt.
[76]    Mubarak, A., (1306Hijri). Al-Khitat Al-Tawfiqiyya, Vol.5, 1st Edition, Al Amiria Printing House, Cairo, Egypt, p.21.
[77]     Dodds, J.D., (1992). Al-Andalus, the Art of Islamic Spain, the Metropolitan Museum of Art Press, New York.
[78]    Khoury, N., (1996). The Meaning of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in the Tenth Century, Journal of Muqarnas, Vol.13, Brill, Leiden, pp.80-98.
[79]    Lowney, Ch., (2006). A Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
[80]    Bloom, J., and Blair, S., (Eds.). (2009). Cordoba, In: The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
[81]    Rachel, K., (2007). A Comparison of the Great Mosque of Cordoba and Notre-Dame du Chartres, Boston College University Libraries, Boston.
[82]    Aitana, G., (2014). The Muslim Struggle for Civil Rights in Spain, 1985–2010: Promoting Democracy through Islamic Engagement, Sussex Academic Press, United Kingdom.
[83]    Lamprakos, M., (2016). Memento Mauri: The Mosque-Cathedral of Cordoba, Aggregate Architectural History Collaborative Press, New York.
[84]    Safi, L., (1995). Leadership and Subordination: An Islamic Perspective, The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Vol.12, Issue 2, pp.204-223.
[85]    Dolan, J.P., (1961). Medieval Christian tolerance and the Muslim world, Journal of the Muslim World, Vol. 51, pp. 280-287.
[86]    Hitti, P.K., (1962). Islam and the West: An Historical, Cultural survey, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
[87]    Irving, T.B., (1991). Dates, Names and Places: The end of Islamic Spain, Revue d'Histoire Maghrebine, Vol.61/62, pp 77-93. 
[88]    Kennedy, P.F., (1994). The Muslim sources of Dante? in The Arab influence in Medieval Europe, Agius and R. Hitchcock, Ithaca Press, London.
[89]    Zaimeche, S., (2005). Seville, the Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilization (FSTC), Manchester.
[90]    Guilland, R., (1948). The Hippodrome at Byzantium, Speculum Journal, Vol.23, Issue 4, pp. 676-682.
[91]    Bassett, S. G., (1991). The Antiquities in the Hippodrome of Constantinople, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 45, pp.87-96.
[92]     Madden, T.F., (1992). The Serpent Column of Delphi in Constantinople, Placement, Purposes, and Mutilations, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, Vol. 16, pp.111-145.           
[93]    Müller-Wiener, W., (1977). Bildlexikon zur Topographie Istanbuls: Byzantion, Konstantinupolis, Istanbul bis zum Beginn d. 17. Jh, Wasmuth Publisher, German.
[94]    Cyril, M., (1991). Constantinople, In: Alexander, K., (Ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
[95]     Harris, J., (2007). Constantinople, Capital of Byzantium, Continuum USA Press, New York.
[96]    Ayyildiz, U., (2009). Istanbul, Net Turistik Yayinlar Press, Updated English edition, Istanbul.
[97]    UNESCO, (2011). International Organization for Conservation of Cultural Heritage (ICCROM), Report on the joint World Heritage Centre / ICOMOS mission of Istanbul, Ankara.
[98]    Hendrix, D., (1993). Constantinople and the Byzantine Legacy, The Creative Commons Global Affiliate Network, California, United States.
[99]    Safran, L., (1993). Points of View: The Theodosian Obelisk Base in Context, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 34, Issue 4, pp.409-435.
[100] Smolijaninovaite, K., (2007). A study on Historic Hamams in Istanbul, Changing Aspects of Cultural use and Architecture, M.A Thesis, Cottbus, Germany.
[101]  Büyükdigan, I., (2003). A critical look at the new functions of Ottoman baths, Journal of Building and Environment, Science Direct, Elsevier Publishing, Vol.38, Issue 4, pp. 617-633.
[102] Inanici, M., (2014). Lighting Analysis of Hagia Sophia, Annuals of Hagia Sophia Museum No. 17, Istanbul, pp.128-202.
[103] https://www.ayasofyahamami.com/tarihi_ve_mimari_dokuhttp://www.ayasofyahamami.com/en/index1.html (Access date: 15/2/2018).
[104] Kramer, M., (1980). Egypt’s Royal Archives, 1922-1952, American Research Center in Egypt Newsletter, Vol. 113, pp. 19-21.
[105] Conant, K., (1946). The First Dome of St. Sophia and Its Rebuilding, Bulletin of the Byzantine Institute of America, Boston, pp.71-78.
[106] Van Nice, R., (1965). Saint Sophia in Istanbul; An Architectural Survey, Dumbarton Oaks, Center for Byzantine Studies, Washington, DC.
[107] Mainstone, R., (2001). Hagia Sophia: Architecture, Structure and Liturgy of Justinian’s Great Church, Thames and Hudson, New York.
[108] Jabi, W., & Potamianos, I., (2007). Geometry, Light, and Cosmology in the Church of Hagia Sophia, International Journal of Architectural Computing, Vol.5, Issue 2, pp.303-319.
[109] Cyril, M., (1985). Byzantine Architecture, History of World Architecture, 1st Edition, Rizzoli Publications, New York.
[110] Binns, J., (2002). An Introduction to the Christian Orthodox Churches, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 
[111] Nelson, R., (2004). Hagia Sophia: 1850-1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
[112] http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/istanbul_aya_sofia&page=all (Access date: 16/2/2018).
[113] Abd al-Wahhab, H., (1956). Alathar Almanqulah Walmuntahalah Fi Aleimarah Aleslamyah, Bulletin de l'Institut d'Égypte, Vol. 38, Le Caire, pp. 243-283.
[114] Iḥsan aabbas, (Ed.) (1993). Yāqūt, Irshād al-arīb ilá maarifat al-adīb, 7 Vols; (Vol.5, p. 2102), Dār al-Gharb al-Islāmī, Beirut.
[115] Peters, F.E., (1968). Aristotle and the Arabs, the Aristotelian Tradition in Islam, New York University Press, New York.
[116] Mattock, J. N., (1971). Review: Aristotle and the Arabs, the Aristotelian tradition in Islam by Peters, F.E., Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol.34, Issue 1, London, pp.147–148.
[117] Zirkle, C., (1941). Natural Selection before the Origin of Species, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol.84, Issue 1, pp. 71–123.
[118] Al-Jaḥiz, Abu authman aamr ibn Baḥr al-Kinani al-Basri., (1384H/1965AD). Kitab Al-Hayawan: Book of Animals, Vol.1, Second edition, Moustafa Albabi Alhalaby Stationery and Press, Cairo, Egypt.
[119] Axworthy, M., (2008).  A History of Iran; Empire of the Mind, Basic Books Press, USA.
[120] Robinson, F. (Ed.). (2010). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Vol.1:  The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
[121] Lunde, P., and Stone, C., (1989).  Al-Masudi: The Meadows of Gold: The Abbasids, translated by Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone, Kegan Paul Press, London and New York.
[122] Kennedy, H., (2004). The True Caliph of the Arabian Nights, History Today, Vol.54, Issue 9, pp.31-36.
[123] Becker, C. H., (1987). Aḥmed ibn Tulun, In: Theodoor, M., (Ed.). Houtsma, Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Vol. I, Brill Press, Leiden, pp. 190–191.
[124] Bianquis, Th., (1998). Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Tulun to Kafur, 868–969, In: Petry, C.F. (Ed.) Cambridge History of Egypt, Vol. 1, Islamic Egypt, 640–1517, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 86-119.
[125] Kennedy, H., (1993). al-Mutawakkil aAla 'llah, In: Bosworth, C. E., Van Donzel, E., Heinrichs, W. P., &Pellat, Ch., (Eds.) The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol.VII, E. J. Brill Press, Leiden, pp.777-778.
[126] Kraemer, J.L., (Ed.) (1989). The History of al-Tabari, Vol.34, Incipient Decline: The Caliphates of al-Wathiq, al-Mutawakkil and al-Muntasir, A.D. 841–863/A.H. 227–248, State University of New York Press, New York.
[127] Friedman. Z., (2014) Nilometer, In: Selin H. (Ed.) Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, Springer, Dordrecht, pp.12-18.
[128] Ardagh, J.C. (1889). Nilometers, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, Vol.11, Issue 1, pp. 28-38.
[129] Bell, B., (1970). The oldest records of the Nile floods, The Geographical Journal, Vol.136, Issue 4, pp.569-573.
[130] Naguib, M., (1997). Naql Alaamayir Al'athariah Aleslamyah bi-Alqahirah Lilhefaz aalayha fi B'iah Atharyah Mola'imah, Journal of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities, University of Minya, January 1997, pp. 175-205.
[131] El-Habashi, A., and Warner, N., (1998). Recording the Monuments of Cairo: an Introduction and Overview, Annales Islamologiques, Vol.32, pp. 81-99.
[132] The American Research Center in Egypt, Egyptian Antiquities Organization and the Getty Conservation Institute, (1993). Restoration and Conservation of Islamic Monuments in Egypt, The Jameel Center; The American University in Cairo, Egypt, pp.1-25.
[133] Gharib, R.Y., (2010). Revitalising Historic Cairo: Examining the Public Policy Formulation and Implementation, PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom.

Files

Share

How to cite

Statistics