Notes on the decorations of central vault mosaic of Galla Placidia chapel in Ravenna, Italy.

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Faculty of Archaeology - Cairo University

2 Department of Greco- Roman Archaeology, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University

3 Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University

Abstract

The Galla Placidia Chapel in Ravenna, or globally known as the "Mausoleum" of Galla Placidia, is renowned for its exceptional mosaic decorations covering the surfaces of its interior walls. The entrance of the chapel represents a dramatic transition from the humble exterior to the grandeur and majesty of the interior; the chapel has retained its entire interior decoration program, which is uncommon for buildings from late antiquity. This cross-planned chapel still raises many Issues and questions that are difficult to answer decisively as a result of the lack of any contemporary documentation, so it remains purely hypothetical. The interpretation of central vault mosaics of the chapel is one of the most important issues that have long occupied the scholars over the years due to the ambiguity and distinctiveness of its elements with regard to the iconographic traditions of the time, as it is the predecessor of a decorative subject that will continue over time in the early Christian structures. The central vault mosaic consists of 567 golden stars arranged in concentric circles against a dark blue background, all orbiting a Latin gold cross represented at the vault apex, while floating, over the heap of the clouds, in the pendentives area, winged bust-figures represent the four living creatures around the celestial throne. Although the blue dome covered with stars is a decorative element known both from Roman art and even from ancient Egyptian art before it, but its significance here with the inclusion of the golden cross in the middle of the vault was not clear, especially since the meaning of the cross itself is disputed and Its orientation to the east and non-following the axis of the chapel reflects many meanings. Therefore, this paper aims to describe and analyze the artistic composition of the central vault mosaics, try to understand the meanings of its elements, and comparing it with other similar decorative elements, whether earlier from the old Egyptian and Roman times or later from the early Byzantine era.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

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[1] عمران، محمود سعید . معالم تاریخ أوروبا فى العصور الوسطى. الأسکندریة: دار المعرفة الجامعیة، د.ت، ص 75؛ عبید، اسحق . الإمبراطوریة الرومانیة بین الدین والبربریة مع دراسة فى " مدینة الله ". القاهرة: دار المعارف، 1972، ص 117.
[1] Hennessy, Cecily. "Patronage and Precedents: Galla Placidia’s chapel in Ravenna and the Holy Apostles, Constantinople." Byzantinoslavica-Revue internationale des Etudes Byzantines 74.1-2 (2016): 26-43.
[1] West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.14; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74; Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.173; Cummings, Charles Amos. A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of the Renaissance. Vol.1. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1901, p.61; Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42; Verhoeven, Mariëtte C. J. The Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna. Transformations and Memory. Turnhout: Brepols, 2011, p.38.
[1] Hennessy, Cecily. "Patronage and Precedents: Galla Placidia’s chapel in Ravenna and the Holy Apostles, Constantinople." Byzantinoslavica-Revue internationale des Etudes Byzantines 74.1-2 (2016): 26-43; Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217; Diehl, Charles. Ravenne. Paris: librairie renouard, H. Laurens, ėditeur, 1907, p.28; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.‏ p.74; West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.13; Sotira, Letizia. "Ravenna e I più significativi centri dell'impero. Il mosaic parietale tra Ve VI secolo: revision critica." Alma Mater Studiorum-Universita'Delgli studi di Bologna Ph.D theses (2014): p.55; Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
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[1] Mackie, Gillian. "The mausoleum of Galla Placidia: A possible occupant." Byzantion 65.2 (1995): 396-404‏; West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.3; Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003‏, pp.174, 176; Hennessy, Cecily. "Patronage and Precedents: Galla Placidia’s chapel in Ravenna and the Holy Apostles, Constantinople." Byzantinoslavica-Revue internationale des Etudes Byzantines 74.1-2 (2016): 26-43.
[1] Hennessy, Cecily. "Patronage and Precedents: Galla Placidia’s chapel in Ravenna and the Holy Apostles, Constantinople." Byzantinoslavica-Revue internationale des Etudes Byzantines 74.1-2 (2016): 26-43; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010,‏ p.74.
[1] Mackie, Gillian. "The mausoleum of Galla Placidia: A possible occupant." Byzantion 65.2 (1995): 396-404; Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003‏, p.176.
[1] Cummings, Charles Amos. A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of the Renaissance. Vol.1. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1901, p.61; Diehl, Charles. Ravenne. Paris: librairie renouard, H. Laurens, ėditeur, 1907, p.28.
[1] Hennessy, Cecily. "Patronage and Precedents: Galla Placidia’s chapel in Ravenna and the Holy Apostles, Constantinople." Byzantinoslavica-Revue internationale des Etudes Byzantines 74.1-2 (2016): 26-43
[1] Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003‏, pp.173, 179-93.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74.
[1] West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.3; Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.174.
[1] المرشح الآخر والوحید الذى یمکن إحتماله هو ﭬالنتینیان الثالث (419م- 455م)، نجل جالا بلاسیدیا، التى کانت وصیة له على العرش فى الفترة مابین عامى 425م و438م. وهذه الفرضیة تدعمها على سبیل المثال، Sterleen Kaymayers فى أطروحتها. إلا أنها فرضیة غیر مرجحة، نظراً لأن ﭬالنتینیان الثالث لم یتولى السلطة إلا عام 438م، وقضى معظم وقته تقریباً فى روما، ویبدو أنه لم یزور راﭬینا بعد عام 450م على الإطلاق. وعلى العکس منه، عُرفت بلاسیدیا بعشقها لراﭬینا، والتى کانت المکان حیث أقامت دون ترکه على الأرجح من عام 425م حتى وفاتها عام 450م، وهى الفترة نفسها التى قامت خلالها برعایة العدید من مشاریع البناء المختلفة. انظر:
 Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.14. 
[1] Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.14.
[1] Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.176; West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.4.
[1] Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.14; West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.4.
 
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42; Hennessy, Cecily. "Patronage and Precedents: Galla Placidia’s chapel in Ravenna and the Holy Apostles, Constantinople." Byzantinoslavica-Revue internationale des Etudes Byzantines 74.1-2 (2016): 26-43; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74; Sotira, Letizia. "Ravenna e I più significativi centri dell'impero. Il mosaic parietale tra Ve VI secolo: revision critica." Alma Mater Studiorum-Universita'Delgli studi di Bologna Ph.D theses (2014): p.55; West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.13.
[1] Verhoeven, Mariëtte C. J. The Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna. Transformations and Memory. Turnhout: Brepols, 2011, p.38; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15.
[1] West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.14; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74; Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.173; Cummings, Charles Amos. A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of the Renaissance. Vol.1. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1901, p.61; Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42; Verhoeven, Mariëtte C. J. The Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna. Transformations and Memory. Turnhout: Brepols, 2011, p.38.
[1] West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.14.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.72.
[1] Mikloš, Matej:"Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15.
یعد سُمک الآجرات تفصیلة معماریة خاصة بمبنى بلاسیدیا کما لاحظت B. Vernia، ولکنها لیست حالة فریدة من نوعها، إذ تم العثور على آجرات مماثلة فى مبانٍ أخرى من نفس الفترة. انظر:
 Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.332.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74.
[1] Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74.
[1] Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74. 
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.72; Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74.
[1] Cummings, Charles Amos. A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of the Renaissance. Vol.1. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1901, p.61; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.76; Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.76.
[1] Cummings, Charles Amos. A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of the Renaissance. Vol.1. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1901, p.61; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.76.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.76; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.76.
[1] Cummings, Charles Amos. A History of Architecture in Italy from the Time of Constantine to the Dawn of the Renaissance. Vol.1. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, 1901, p.61.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.76.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.74; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.75; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.332.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.76.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.76; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.15; Incerti, Manuela, et al. "The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna: Archaeoastronomy, numbers, geometry and communication." Congreso Internacional de Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica. Springer, Cham, (2018): pp.492-505 .
[1] West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.14.
[1] West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.15.
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.77.
[1] West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.15; Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217; Sotira, Letizia. "Ravenna e I più significativi centri dell'impero. Il mosaic parietale tra Ve VI secolo: revision critica." Alma Mater Studiorum-Universita'Delgli studi di Bologna Ph.D theses (2014): pp.55-6; Ricci, Corrado. Il sepolcro di Galla Placidia in Ravenna: L'ardica di S. Croce, l'isolamento del mausoleo, l'edificio. Roma: E. Calzone, 1914, p.141.
[1] Sotira, Letizia. "Ravenna e I più significativi centri dell'impero. Il mosaic parietale tra Ve VI secolo: revision critica." Alma Mater Studiorum-Universita'Delgli studi di Bologna Ph.D theses (2014): p.56; Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.180; Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42; West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): p.16; Ricci, Corrado. Il sepolcro di Galla Placidia in Ravenna: L'ardica di S. Croce, l'isolamento del mausoleo, l'edificio. Roma: E. Calzone, 1914, p.142; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.80; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.18; Incerti, Manuela, et al. "The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna: Archaeoastronomy, numbers, geometry and communication." Congreso Internacional de Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica. Springer, Cham, (2018): pp.492-505; Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407.
[1] Incerti, Manuela, et al. "The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna: Archaeoastronomy, numbers, geometry and communication." Congreso Internacional de Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica. Springer, Cham, (2018): pp.492-505; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.80.
[1] Sotira, Letizia. "Ravenna e I più significativi centri dell'impero. Il mosaic parietale tra Ve VI secolo: revision critica." Alma Mater Studiorum-Universita'Delgli studi di Bologna Ph.D theses (2014): p.56; Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.180; Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42; West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003): pp.16-7; Ricci, Corrado. Il sepolcro di Galla Placidia in Ravenna: L'ardica di S. Croce, l'isolamento del mausoleo, l'edificio. Roma: E. Calzone, 1914, p.142; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.81; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.18; Incerti, Manuela, et al. "The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna: Archaeoastronomy, numbers, geometry and communication." Congreso Internacional de Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica. Springer, Cham, (2018): pp.492-505; Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407.
[1] "والحیوان الأول شبه أسد، والحیوان الثانى شبه عجل، والحیوان الثالث له وجه مثل وجه إنسان، والحیوان الرابع شبه نسر طائر". (الرؤیا 4: 7)
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.81; Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407.
[1] رمز اللون الأزرق إلى الأبدیة التى لا نهایة لها، أما اللون الأصفر أو الذهبى فهو یُعبر عن المجد السماوى، وهو رمزاً للقداسة التى تنبعث من النور الإلهى. انظر: بهى الدین، دعاء محمد. "الرمزیة ودلالاتها فى الفن القبطى." رسالة ماجستیر، کلیة الآداب، جامعة الأسکندریة (2009): ص185-86.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.25.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.81.
[1] Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.25.
[1] Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.181.
[1] "وحینئذ، تظهر علامة ابن الإنسان فى السماء. وحینئذ، تنوح جمیع قبائل الأرض. ویبصرون ابن الإنسان آتیاً على سحاب السماء بقوة ومجد کبیر". (متى 24: 30)
[1] Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407; Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.181.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp.82,334.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.25.
[1] Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407; Sotira, Letizia. "Ravenna e I più significativi centri dell'impero. Il mosaic parietale tra Ve VI secolo: revision critica." Alma Mater Studiorum-Universita'Delgli studi di Bologna Ph.D theses (2014): p.59.
[1] Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407; Sotira, Letizia. "Ravenna e I più significativi centri dell'impero. Il mosaic parietale tra Ve VI secolo: revision critica." Alma Mater Studiorum-Universita'Delgli studi di Bologna Ph.D theses (2014): p.59.
[1] Incerti, Manuela, et al. "The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna: Archaeoastronomy, numbers, geometry and communication." Congreso Internacional de Expresión Gráfica Arquitectónica. Springer, Cham, (2018): pp.492-505; Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407.
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.82.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp.80,334.
[1] Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp.80,334.
[1] "سر السبعة الکواکب التى رأیت عن یمینى، والسبع المنایر الذهبیة: السبعة الکواکب هى ملائکة السبع الکنائس، والمنایر السبع التى رأیتها هى السبع الکنائس". (الرؤیا 1: 20)
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217.
[1] فخرى، أحمد. الأهرامات المصریة. القاهرة: مکتبة الأنجلو المصریة، 2007، ص228.
[1] توفیق، سید. تاریخ العمارة فى مصر القدیمة: الأقصر. القاهرة: 2011، ص195.
[1] توفیق، سید. تاریخ العمارة فى مصر القدیمة: الأقصر. القاهرة: 2011، ص272.
[1] توفیق، سید. تاریخ العمارة فى مصر القدیمة: الأقصر. القاهرة: 2011، ص276.
[1] توفیق، سید. تاریخ العمارة فى مصر القدیمة: الأقصر. القاهرة: 2011، ص300.
[1] فرانشى، ماسیمیلیانو. الفلک فى مصر القدیمة. ترجمة فاطمة فوزى، القاهرة: 2015، ص53-4.
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] شاهین،علاء الدین عبد المحسن. التاریخ السیاسى والحضارى لمصر الفرعونیة. القاهرة: الخلیج العربى للطباعة والنشر، 2008/2009، ص245؛ Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] توفیق، سید. تاریخ العمارة فى مصر القدیمة: الأقصر. القاهرة: 2011، ص317.
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] Griffiths, John Gwyn. The origins of Osiris and his cult. Vol. 40. Leiden: Brill, 1980, pp.12-14.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217.
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217.
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42; Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217.
[1] Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42.
[1] مثل کتابات داماسوس، أسقف روما (366م – 384م)، وبولینوس من مدینة نولا (حوالى 354م – 431م)، وبیتر خریسولوجوس (حوالى 406م – 450م)، أسقف راﭬینا فى حوالى 426م.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.26.
[1] Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217; Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014): p.26.
 [1] لمزید من المناقشة، انظر:
Swift, Ellen, and Anne Alwis. "The role of late antique art in early Christian worship: a reconsideration of the iconography of the ‘starry sky’in the ‘Mausoleum’of Galla Placidia." Papers of the British School at Rome 78 (2010): 193-217.
[1] Rizzardi, Clementina. "Mosaici parietali esistenti e scomparsi di età placidiana a Ravenna: iconografie imperiali e apocalittiche" CARB 40 (1993): PP.385-407; Ranaldi, Antonella. "Dalla realtà sensibile all'astrazione. La volta stellata del mausoleo di Galla Placidia." Architettura e mosaic, Atti della Giornata di studi Architettura e mosaico, Museo d’arte Ravenna ( 2011): pp.20-42; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp.81,334.
[1] Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.180; Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.81.
الأسد یرمز إلى القدیس مرقس الإنجیلى، والعجل إلى القدیس لوقا الإنجیلى، والإنسان إلى القدیس متى الإنجیلى، والنسر الطائر إلى القدیس یوحنا الإنجیلى.
[1] Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, p.180.
[1] Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp.81,334.
[1] Mackie, Gillian Vallance. Early Christian chapels in the west: decoration, function and patronage. London: University of Toronto Press, 2003, pp.180-81.
مراجع الأشکال والخرائط:
 
-       Bustacchini, Gianfranco. Ravenna: mosaics, monuments and environment. Ravenna: Cartolibreria Salbaroli, 1987.
-       Deliyannis, Deborah Mauskopf. Ravenna in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
-       James, Liz, ed. A companion to Byzantium. USA: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.‏
-       Mikloš, Matej:" Mauzoleum" Gally Placidie.", Masarykova univerzita Bachelor thesis (2014).
-       Salisbury, Joyce E. Rome's Christian Empress: Galla Placidia Rules at the Twilight of the Empire. Baltimore: JHU Press, 2015.‏
-       West, Lisa Onontiyoh. "Re-evaluating the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia." LSU Master's Theses (2003).
الإختصارات:
-       CARB: Corso di cultura sull'arte Ravennate e Bizantina.
-       LPR: Agnellus, liber Pontificalis ecclesiae Ravennatis.
 

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